Sociological Theory

Lecture 2: The Three Major Perspectives

This lecture covers the nature and purpose of sociological theory.
We will define the three major paradigms:
- Structural Functionalism
- Conflict Theory
- Symbolic Interactionism
We will apply these theories to examples like education and daily interaction.

Definition: A theory is a conceptual framework used to understand and explain society.
It is not a random guess; it is a proposed explanation about social interactions.
Purpose: The primary purpose of theory is explanation—to help interpret patterns in social behavior.
Paradigms: Broad perspectives (philosophical and theoretical frameworks) used to formulate theories.
Analogy: A theory is like a blueprint mapping relationships among social institutions.

Level: Macro (large-scale).
Roots: Herbert Spencer (Body Analogy), Émile Durkheim.
Core Idea: Society is a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet biological and social needs.
Metaphor: The Living Body. Organs (institutions) work together to keep the body (society) healthy.
Goal: To maintain Dynamic Equilibrium (stability) in a healthy society.

Manifest Functions: Consequences that are sought or anticipated (e.g., College = gaining knowledge, career preparation).
Latent Functions: Consequences that are unsought or unintended (e.g., College = meeting a spouse, creating a hierarchy).
Dysfunctions: Undesirable consequences that disrupt society (e.g., College = bad grades, debt, truancy).
Criticism: Cannot adequately explain rapid social change; circular logic.

Level: Macro (large-scale).
Theorist: Most closely associated with Karl Marx.
Core Idea: Society is a competition for limited resources (food, housing, employment).
Focus: Inequality, power imbalances, and oppression.
Max Weber's Addition: Conflict isn't just economic; it involves political power and social structure.

Frankfurt School (1930s-40s): Developed Critical Theory as an expansion of conflict theory.
Holistic Approach: Attempts to address structural issues causing inequality.
Goal: Not just to explain, but to liberate humans from inequality and restriction.
Includes modern offshoots like Feminist Theory and Critical Race Theory (structural inequality based on white privilege/wealth).

Level: Micro (small-scale).
Theorists: George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer.
Core Idea: Society is created through small-scale social interactions and the exchange of meaning.
Humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to them; these meanings are interpreted by the person.
Focus: Language, gestures, and symbols.

Erving Goffman: Used theater as an analogy for social interaction.
Concept: People are actors in a play.
Scripts: We switch roles (student, daughter, employee) and improvise based on cultural "scripts."
It helps explain why we behave differently in different settings (impression management).

An extension of symbolic interaction theory.
Idea: Reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be.
Example: Deviance. There is no absolute definition of "deviant" behavior; societies construct the meaning.
- Wallet Drop: In the US, keeping a found wallet is deviant. In some cultures, turning it in to police (instead of finding the owner yourself) is deviant.

Perspective	Level	Focus	Key Metaphor/Concept
Functionalism	Macro	Stability, Order	Living Body / Dynamic Equilibrium
Conflict Theory	Macro	Inequality, Power	Competition for Resources
Symbolic Interactionism	Micro	Meaning, Interaction	Symbols / Dramaturgy